Reclaiming the Future: Enhancing Wastewater Management on the Hopi Reservation

Written by on

Fig. 1 – Sipaulovi, Second Mesa, the Hopi Reservation. Source: David Wallace / The Republic.

The Hopi Reservation

The Hopi Reservation, located in northeastern Arizona, is home to the Hopi Tribe, a sovereign nation. The Reservation, surrounded on all sides by the Navajo Nation, is made up of 12 villages on three mesas and has several underground tributaries of Little Colorado River running through it. In this arid area, water, especially natural springs, carry unique and sacred significance to the Hopi people. Despite a subtle seasonal fluctuation, precipitation remains relatively low at 2.5 inches throughout the year.1

Map 1 – Regional Map with Water Bodies and NOAA Weather Stations Marked. The station nearest to the Hopi Reservation, Tuba City, is missing data for 2023. Hence, precipitation at Hopi is calculated using the average of Betatakin, Wupatki NM, and Winslow Airport stations. All stations marked (except Tuba City) in this map are used for calculating regional averages.

The Hopi Reservation consists of 12 villages clustered around the three Mesas, except for Upper and Lower Moenkopi, located closer to Tuba City in Navajo Nation. Waalpi (Walpi), Hanoki (Hano / Tewa), and Sitsomovi (Sichomovi) are located on the First Mesa. Songoopavi (Shongopavi), Musungnuvi (Mishongnovi), and Supawlavi (Shipaulovi) are located in the Second Mesa. Hotevilla, Paaqavi (Bacavi), iqotsmovi (Kykotsmovi), and Orayvi (Oraibi) are on the Third Mesa. According to the ACS 2022 5-year estimate, the total population of Hopi Reservation is at 7,895 (+/- 704). Among all villages, Moenkopi (1064 people), Shongopavi (1151 people), and Kykotsmovi (887 people) are larger in terms of population.

Fig. 2 – Villages in Hopi Reservation. Source: Hopi Arts Trail, https://www.hopiartstrail.com/map.

Water Supply & Existing Treatment

Map 2 – Hopi Reservation Wastewater and Drinking Water Treatment Facilities. (Note: Unlabeled wastewater treatment plants are identified solely from aerial imagery.)

The overall existing water conditions in the Hopi Tribe can be characterized by heavy reliance on groundwater withdrawal for supply and relatively primitive treatment infrastructure (though there are many ongoing projects or proposals that aim to channel resources for improvement, which will be mentioned in detail in sections below).

The Hopi Reservation is located on top of several aquifers, which serve as the main sources of groundwater. A report by USGS in 1977 identified the following aquifers that run through the Hopi reservation2:

  • The C (Coconino) Aquifer3
  • The N (Navajo) Aquifer4
  • The D Aquifer5
  • The Chinle Formation
  • The Toreva Formation
  • The Bidahochi Formation
  • The Alluvium

There has been a dispute between the Hopi and Navajo Nation on using the N aquifer, fearing it is going to run out given that both tribes are withdrawing water from it. In addition, drinking water supplied by aquifers has been experiencing all kinds of challenges, including physical scarcity and arsenic contamination.

There are a few existing drinking water treatment plants in the reservation that ensure clean drinking water supply, mostly for communal wells where residents withdraw water from, and small village distribution systems. The drinking water treatment plants include 1) BIA Keams Canyon (AdEdge Adsorptive Media Arsenic Removal Plant serving two supply wells), 2) Second Mesa Day School (Isolux Adsorptive Arsenic Treatment System), 3) Hopi Junior Senior High School (Reverse Osmosis Plant), 4) Moenkopi Utility Authority (Reverse Osmosis Plant) and 5) Turquoise Trail Wells (Chlorination Facilities). The Keams Canyon, Second Mesa Day School and Hopi High School facilities are part of the Bureau of Indian Affairs (BIA) water system. The Turquoise Trail Wells were constructed as part of the Hopi Arsenic Mitigation Project (HAMP) and now provide water (via pipelines) to previously untreated systems at Shongopavi, Upper Mishongnovi/Sipaulovi, Lower Mishongnovi/Sipaulovi, and Polacca (First Mesa Consolidated Villages, FMCV).6

The Upper Moenkopi Wastewater Treatment Plant is the only wastewater treatment plant on the reservation, and opens up more opportunities for reclaiming wastewater as will be discussed below. Wastewater treatment on the Reservation is primarily handled by lagoon systems, including the Second Mesa School Wastewater Lagoon, Toreva Wastewater Lagoon, Sipaulovi Wastewater Lagoons, Polacca (First Mesa Consolidated Villages, FMCV) Wastewater Lagoons, Hopi Junior Senior High School Wastewater Lagoons, the BIA Keams Canyon Wastewater Lagoons, and others scattered throughout the reservation. More isolated homes in the Hopi Reservation are served by septic tanks, while outhouses are still common in older areas.7

Current Challenges & Strategies

Fig. 3 – A web diagram presenting water management challenge in the Hopi Reservation.

The critical water challenge facing the Hopi Reservation is the limited supply of clean water. There are several related water challenges as well, although they have possible solutions that can also contribute to the overall goal of increasing the supply of clean water. One component of improving wastewater treatment can be increasing the recycling of water, in turn increasing the available water for irrigation or household use, if properly treated. Improving stormwater management, to avoid the occasional serious flooding on the reservation despite low levels of rain overall, can facilitate greater rainwater capture and storage to supplement existing clean water supplies. Arsenic Contamination is already being addressed with the HAMP. This project could also be a model for greater inter-village coordination and management of water supply and distribution issues. Physical scarcity may be addressed through new water rights agreements, currently pending with the Northeastern Arizona Indian Water Rights Settlement (NAIWRSA) bill, which could supply more clean water from the Colorado River. Finally, many Hopi still lack piped water connections to their homes. While this issue is not directly related to the overall supply of clean water, addressing it will ensure that more residents have easy access to it. This project could be part of an expanded HAMP, the latter of which already requires the construction of new pipes and is overseen by the tribal-level Hopi Utilities Corporation (HUC).

The following table summarizes some major water challenges the Hopi are facing and some current or proposed interventions. It is important to highlight the ongoing negotiation of the NAIWRSA that could potentially bring more water supply from the Colorado River, and the existing HAMP project that largely contributes to alleviating threats from arsenic contamination. Given all the existing solutions and proposals, our team chose to focus on enhancing wastewater treatment, which could both diversify the Hopi’s water portfolio and alleviate problem of physical water scarcity.

ChallengeCurrent or Potential Solutions / Interventions
Physical scarcity: limited groundwater supply(In negotiation) Rights to the Colorado River Water (Northeastern Arizona Indian Water Rights Settlement (NAIWRSA) Act of 2024); Share with Navajo; Rainwater capture; Wastewater recycling
Arsenic ContaminationExpand HAMP for more clean water supply
Poor wastewater treatment (unlined lagoons, failing septic tanks)More sewer treatment plants; Repair lagoons; Start charging for sewer service to pay for upgrades
Bad stormwater management during floodsCapture rainwater
Lack of piped water connection in many homesCapital investment (federal funding needed); Unified tribal water utility would make installation and operation of new lines easier

Fig. 4 – Table of Water Challenges and Current or Potential Solutions Relevant to the Hopi Reservation

Our Proposed Intervention: Wastewater Management

Fig. 5 – Proposed Water Portfolio and Management Intervention (3 Parts).

Our intervention focuses on enhancing wastewater management and usage of reclaimed water in the Hopi Reservation, and it can be split into 3 parts. The first is to improve and expand existing lagoon and septic systems in the Reservation’s smaller settlements, and begin the reclaiming of wastewater for non-potable uses like irrigation. Second is to build two new treatment and recycling plants in the largest settlements, Shongopavi and the First Mesa Consolidated Villages (FMCV), and to upgrade the existing treatment plant at Upper Moenkopi, all three of which will be able to treat wastewater for potable reuse. The third and final stage is to build the pipe network to adequately transport the new reclaimed water. This intervention will also require varied sources of funding, as well as meaningful public engagement. 

Part 1 – Lagoon and Septic System Upgrades

(Left) Fig. 6 – Keams Canyon Wastewater Lagoons. Source: Google Maps.
(Right) Fig. 7– Advanced Integrated Wastewater Pond System (AIWPS) Diagram. Source: Ertas, Ponce/SDSU.

The first and quickest intervention is to improve the existing wastewater infrastructure at the Reservation’s smaller settlements. The first half of this is ensuring that existing lagoon and septic systems found throughout the Reservation are properly maintained and lined to avoid groundwater infiltration and large enough to handle current capacity. Next, where feasible, lagoon systems should be upgraded to handle wastewater recycling for non-potable use, especially irrigation. This can be done by upgrading them to Advanced Integrated Wastewater Pond Systems (AIWPS). The AIWPS is a more advanced, multi-staged version of the lagoon system developed at the University of California, Berkeley that has been shown to produce treated water suitable for irrigation, while maintaining the relatively low cost that makes lagoon systems attractive in rural areas.8 The larger lagoon systems on the Hopi Reservation, such as the Keams Canyon site shown, should be rebuilt to this model. This will provide a reliable source of irrigation for local farmers to supplement traditional dry farming techniques and infrequent seasonal irrigation from storm runoff.

Part 2 – New Treatment Plants

Fig. 8 – Upper Moenkopi Treatment Plant. Source: Upper Moenkopi Utility Authority.

Our next step is to construct full scale treatment plants serving the largest settlements on the Reservation, specifically the First Mesa Consolidated Villages and Shongopavi on the Second Mesa. These will ensure current and future capacity needs will be met while avoiding groundwater infiltration and overflow that can happen with lagoon systems. Most importantly, these new plants can be built to recycle wastewater to drinking water standards. This stage of the intervention will also involve upgrading the Tribe’s only existing treatment plant at Upper Moenkopi to ensure that it can also recycle wastewater to drinking standards, as right now it is recycling water just for irrigation and dust control.9

Part 3 – Connecting the Hopi Reservation

Finally, we want to build a more expansive pipe network to ensure that water treated at these new facilities can be delivered where needed across the Reservation. This will first involve building pipes for reclaimed non-potable water from the upgraded lagoons (AIWPS) and new treatment plants to nearby farmland and possibly village taps where households can access the non-potable water for home gardening and other needs. Second, new pipes need to be installed to transport reclaimed potable water from the three treatment plants (the two new ones and the existing plant in Upper Moenkopi) to the existing village water distribution systems, which may also involve the construction of pumping stations. This could be done at two scales. The smaller scale involves connecting just to the nearby water systems at Upper Moenkopi, Shongopavi, and the FMCV, where the treatment plants are to be located. The larger scale involves installing additional pipes to deliver recycled potable water to smaller villages without their own treatment plants, mainly around the three Mesas and further east at Keams Canyon.

This will be an expensive project requiring coordination at the Tribal level, but can be modeled after the Hopi Arsenic Mitigation Project (HAMP). That project involved the construction of miles of new water delivery pipelines using federal funding from the IHS and EPA, and overseen by the Tribe-owned Hopi Utilities Corporation.10 The Hopi Utilities Corporation could also lead the construction of new waste- and reclaimed-water pipelines, building off of the engineering and project lessons from the HAMP. This is the longest-term part of our intervention, and like the HAMP could take more than a decade. New pipe infrastructure will be limited by rugged terrain in some parts of the Reservation, and may not touch the couple of traditional villages that don’t want to see utilities in their communities.11 

Potential Funding Sources

This is a complex project requiring significant capital expense well into the tens of millions of dollars, meaning a variety of funding sources will need to be considered. Funding used to complete the HAMP would be a good place to start. For this project the Hopi received funds from the following sources:12

Funding SourcesDescription
Indian Health Service (IHS) Regular Funds$14.4 million in total. The IHS has historically funded most of the water and wastewater infrastructure on the Reservation and would likely be a source of funding for the project being proposed.13

Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) Drinking Water Tribal Set-Aside (DWTSA)
$ 6.1 million in total. This grant program could be tapped again to help cover the portions of the project involving potable water reclamation.

Other federal funding sources include:

Funding SourcesDescription
EPA Water Infrastructure Finance and Innovation Act (WIFIA) Program is designed for larger projects (at least $5 million for smaller communities). 
EPA Tribal/Territory Water Pollution Control (Section 106) GrantsGrants that could be used to repair lagoon and septic systems that threaten groundwater quality. 
Bureau of Reclamation WaterSMART Grant program for improving water efficiency in the American West, including water recycling. 
Army Corps of Engineers Environmental Infrastructure, Resource Protection and Development (595) ProgramProvides design and construction assistance for large water and wastewater capital projects with a 75% federal cost share.
Army Corps of Engineers Corps Water Infrastructure Financing Program (CWIFP)Loans for water capital projects. 
Department of Housing and Urban Development (HUD) Indian Community Development Block Grants (CDBG) Can be used for a variety of community infrastructure including water and wastewater facilities. 
HUD Tribal Housing Activities Loan Guarantee Program (Title VI) and Indian Housing Block Grant (IHBG) ProgramBoth of these programs can be used to fund the construction and renovation of household septic systems. 
Department of Agriculture (USDA) Rural Decentralized Water System Grants (DWS) Program specifically for building and repairing household septic systems and wells.

There are also funding opportunities from the State of Arizona:

Funding SourceDescription
Arizona Clean Water Act (CWA) Section 319 Nonpoint Source Management Grants Offers small funds for septic system rehabilitation.
Arizona Water Quality Improvement Grants
Water Supply Development Revolving Fund (WSDRF) “Specifically designed to meet the unique water supply needs of small, rural communities” and may support water recycling.14
Clean Water State Revolving Fund (CWSRF)Partnership with the EPA, which among other things funds projects involving the “upgrade or replacement of failing decentralized wastewater systems” (i.e. septic and lagoons) and “water reclamation and reuse.”15

While there is an array of funding sources the Hopi can tap into for this project, they may not have the capacity to research and apply for such a diverse array of grants and loans. There are programs though for this kind of assistance. The EPA is currently undertaking its Lagoon Wastewater Treatment Action Plan which is meant to be a source of financial and technical assistance for rural communities with lagoon systems. Additionally, the Inter Tribal Council of Arizona (ITCA) Tribal Water and Wastewater Technical Assistance to Tribal Communities program helps tribes “develop technical, managerial, and financial capacity” for water utility systems.16 A similar program is the Native American Affairs Technical Assistance Program (TAP) under the Bureau of Reclamation.


Finally, the Hopi will need to raise additional funds to operate and maintain the new infrastructure. State and Federal funding sources are generally oriented towards capital projects, meaning it will be more difficult for the Hopi to secure outside funding for the day-to-day operations of the new infrastructure (on top of the infrastructure that is already in place). There are some steps the Hopi can take internally to help with this. Currently, Hopi residents connected to the various village sewer systems do not pay a separate charge for sewer service.17 Instituting a service fee for sewer service could provide a dedicated stream of funding to operate new and upgraded wastewater infrastructure. Additionally, the Tribe could look at raising the fees charged for water service, especially in communities still using a flat fee instead of a metered rate. Charging new or higher fees will be challenging though, given the limited financial resources of Tribal residents, with about 22% of families and 30% of all people in the Hopi Reservation living below the federal poverty level. 18

Reforming the administration of tribal water systems would increase capacity and operational efficiency, making the best use of limited funds. Currently, water and wastewater systems on the Hopi Reservation are managed by the individual villages.19 Going forward, the Hopi should look to consolidate the Reservation’s various systems, including the new infrastructure being proposed here, under the Hopi Utilities Corporation (HUC). This is a company wholly owned by the Hopi Tribe, established to manage the new HAMP infrastructure, and it has also been involved in the creation of new power lines and solar energy projects as well.20 As of the 2021/2022 Update to the Hopi Tribe Comprehensive Economic Development Strategy (CEDS) Plan, there are talks underway to have the HUC directly administer the village water systems served by the HAMP, as well as to take over the power grid on the Reservation. Having a comprehensive Reservation-wide utility system, instead of several smaller, village-centric systems, would increase maintenance and operational capacity and provide central control of financial resources to distribute where needed across the Reservation.

Getting Community Buy-In

There also needs to be strong public engagement to inform Tribe members about the new infrastructure being constructed and to build acceptance over the use of recycled water. This could take inspiration from other parts of the U.S. where recycled water is being introduced. A good example is in San Diego, California, where a small treatment facility was opened at first where community members could come and try the recycled drinking water themselves, building interest and support overtime.21 While this kind of engagement would be needed in most places to make people more comfortable with using recycled water, we must also be sensitive to the Hopi context. This need is exemplified by a series of lawsuits in the past decade brought by the Hopi against the City of Flagstaff and a nearby ski resort to stop the use of recycled water to make snow at the resort, which is located on the San Francisco Peaks, considered sacred to the Hopi Tribe. 22 This conflict demonstrates the need for proactive engagement with the Tribe before building and deploying water recycling infrastructure and ensuring that it is used in an appropriate way and in appropriate locations.

Conclusion

The three-part intervention we are proposing starts with improving existing sewage collection facilities and developing water reuse for irrigation, then building new treatment plants for drinking water reuse, and finally expanding delivery capabilities for this reclaimed water across the Reservation. Even if the impact is modest, this is an important step in expanding the Hopi’s water portfolio beyond just the traditional groundwater sources. 

  1. NOAA, ‘NOWData’,  https://www.weather.gov/wrh/Climate?wfo=fgz, accessed Sep 27, 2024. ↩︎
  2. USGS, “Maps showing ground-water conditions in the Hopi area, Coconino and Navajo counties, Arizona; 1977,” https://www.usgs.gov/publications/maps-showing-ground-water-conditions-hopi-area-coconino-and-navajo-counties-arizona#:~:text=The%20main%20sources%20of%20ground,vertical%20movement%20of%20ground%20water., accessed Sep 27, 2024. ↩︎
  3. Refer to https://www.usgs.gov/centers/arizona-water-science-center/science/c-aquifer-monitoring-program for more information. ↩︎
  4. Refer to https://pubs.usgs.gov/fs/FS-064-99/ for more information. ↩︎
  5. Refer to https://pubs.usgs.gov/publication/wri034189 for more information. ↩︎
  6. “Amendment No. 2 to the Project Summary Hopi Arsenic Mitigation Project,” U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, June 2020,  https://www.hopi-nsn.gov/wp-content/uploads/2022/08/Aug-17-issue-final.pdf, Accessed Sep 29, 2024. ↩︎
  7. Hanemann, Michael and Whittington, Dale, “An Economic Assessment of Future Water Needs on the Hopi Reservation”, March 15, 2019, https://s3.documentcloud.org/documents/7034820/H-W-Report-Combined-Rev-MH.pdf. ↩︎
  8. Ertas, Tuba and Ponce, Victor M., “Advanced Integrated Wastewater Pond Systems (AIWPS)”, San Diego State University, https://ponce.sdsu.edu/aiwps.html. ↩︎
  9. “Authorization to Discharge under the National Pollutant Discharge Elimination System for the Upper Village of Moenkopi Wastewater Treatment Plant”, Environmental Protection Agency, November 2017, https://archive.epa.gov/epa/sites/production/files/2017-12/documents/az0024619uv-moenkopi-hopi-npdes-factsheet-2017.pdf. ↩︎
  10. “Amendment No. 2 to the Project Summary Hopi Arsenic Mitigation Project,” U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, June 2020,  https://www.hopi-nsn.gov/wp-content/uploads/2022/08/Aug-17-issue-final.pdf, Accessed Sep 29, 2024. ↩︎
  11. *“The 2021 Hopi Tribe Comprehensive Economic Development Strategy,” The Hopi Tribe, 2021,  https://www.hopi-nsn.gov/wp-content/uploads/2022/02/2021-HOPI-CEDS-Approved.pdf ↩︎
  12. “Amendment No. 2 to the Project Summary Hopi Arsenic Mitigation Project,” U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, June 2020,  https://www.hopi-nsn.gov/wp-content/uploads/2022/08/Aug-17-issue-final.pdf, Accessed Sep 29, 2024. ↩︎
  13. Hanemann, Michael and Whittington, Dale, “An Economic Assessment of Future Water Needs on the Hopi Reservation”, March 15, 2019, https://s3.documentcloud.org/documents/7034820/H-W-Report-Combined-Rev-MH.pdf. ↩︎
  14. “Rural Programs”, Arizona Department of Water Resources, https://www.azwater.gov/rural-programs/funding-and-grant-information. ↩︎
  15.  “Clean Water State Revolving Fund”, Water Infrastructure Finance Authority of Arizona, https://www.azwifa.gov/programs/funding-type/cwsrf. ↩︎
  16.  “Technical Assistance”, Inter Tribal Council of Arizona, https://itcaonline.com/programs/environmental-quality-programs/tws-tmap/professional-development/. ↩︎
  17.  “The 2021 Hopi Tribe Comprehensive Economic Development Strategy,” The Hopi Tribe, 2021,  https://www.hopi-nsn.gov/wp-content/uploads/2022/02/2021-HOPI-CEDS-Approved.pdf. ↩︎
  18. “Table DP03: Selected Economic Characteristics,” 2022 American Community Survey 5-Year Estimates, U.S. Census Bureau, www.data.census.gov. ↩︎
  19. Hanemann, Michael and Whittington, Dale, “An Economic Assessment of Future Water Needs on the Hopi Reservation”, March 15, 2019, https://s3.documentcloud.org/documents/7034820/H-W-Report-Combined-Rev-MH.pdf. ↩︎
  20.  “Amendment No. 2 to the Project Summary Hopi Arsenic Mitigation Project,” U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, June 2020,  https://www.hopi-nsn.gov/wp-content/uploads/2022/08/Aug-17-issue-final.pdf, Accessed Sep 29, 2024. ↩︎
  21. Sedlak, D.,. “The Toilet-to-Tap Solution.” Water 4.0: the past, present, and future of the world’s most vital resource. 2014. Yale University Press. Ch. 10. ↩︎
  22.  Cowan, Emery, “US tribe fights use of treated sewage to make snow on holy peaks,” The Guardian, Feb 15 2018,  https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2018/feb/15/arizona-snow-ski-hopi-tribe-lawsuit. ↩︎

Leave a Comment

Your email address will not be published. Required fields are marked *

*