Background
Kathmandu, the capital city of Nepal, is home to 1.4 million residents. Nepal is a small country in South Asia surrounded by the Himalayas and it has approximately 2.7 percent of the world’s fresh water resources. Nepal has one of the highest water availability per capita in the world, with 7,000 cubic meters per person. Despite its proximity to glaciers and physical abundance of fresh water, Kathmandu has long struggled with a water crisis due to a lack of infrastructure, political turmoil, and administrative issues. More monsoons and flooding brought on by climate change as well as seismic activity in the Kathmandu Valley region further exacerbate the city’s water access challenges.
Precipitation
Precipitation in Kathmandu, Nepal is largely seasonal with the monsoon season from June to September. The summer months have as high as 14.3 inches of precipitation per month and this peaks during July. The other months of the year from October to April have less than 5 inches of precipitation per month, so the rainfall is inconsistent (World Weather & Climate Information).
Water Resources
Groundwater Data and Aquifers
There are two main aquifers that supply groundwater in Kathmandu Valley; both are being over extracted (Sangam et al. 93). The shallow unconfined aquifer, which is at around 0-30 feet in depth, is contaminated with E. coli and nitrates, and the deep confined aquifer, which is at around 1000-1200 feet in depth, is contaminated with arsenic and heavy metals (Sangam et al. 24, WASH Matters). Since the 1970s, Kathmandu has undergone rapid growth to accommodate refugees of conflict, natural disasters, and climate, which have contributed to the depletion of its aquifers (Schmall and Sharma).
Water Resources and Infrastructure Map
Data Source: OCHA
Sources of Drinking Water
Kathmandu residents get their drinking water from shallow and deep tube wells, stone spouts, dug wells, and the municipal water supply. However, bacterial contamination is a major problem for all of these sources, especially for dug wells, stone spouts and shallow aquifers (Warner et al. 323). The Sundarijal drinking water treatment plant is located north of Kathmandu along the Bagmati River, which is the main river that flows through the city. This treatment plant supplies drinking water to over 1 million residents in Kathmandu Valley (The WABAG Group). There are no dams, aqueducts or canals within Kathmandu. The Sundarijal Dam and the Dhap Dam are located further to the north beyond the city boundaries.
Photo by Ramesh Bushal. Source: The Third Pole
Sewage Treatment
There are five wastewater treatment plants that have operated in Kathmandu Valley, but only the Guheshwori plant is open and operating today at a capacity of 32.4 million liters per day (Green et al., Somi). Although this plant capacity was increased by about 20 million liters per day in 2018 through an $80 million USD investment from the Asian Development Bank (ADB), it still only treats 25% of the total wastewater in Kathmandu (Bajracharya). Therefore, the Bagmati River is still heavily polluted by raw sewage and plastics. ADB invested $80 million USD in 2013 to repair and rebuild a total of five wastewater treatment facilities and bring the system to 80% capacity however, due to a series of managerial challenges and delays, the project was not completed.
Water Management: the KUKL
The Kathmandu Upatyaka Khanepani Limited (KUKL) is a public company that began managing the drinking water and wastewater systems in Kathmandu starting in 2008. KUKL is licensed under a 30-year agreement with the Kathmandu Valley Water Supply Management Board and operates as a Public-Private Partnership. Prior to 2008, Kathmandu’s water systems were managed by different institutions created by the national government. Residents pay the KUKL for both drinking water and wastewater services, but the company does not manage stormwater infrastructure or charge stormwater-related fees. The KUKL is responsible for maintenance and operations of its current systems, including the infrastructure that was recently constructed as part of the Melamchi Water Supply Project. The company provides tap water, tanker water, and deep tube well services as well as sanitation and water quality testing services. In 2022, the KUKL supplied water to 221,649 total connections or over 2.8 million people across Kathmandu Valley, including Kathmandu and a handful of other cities (KUKL). The KUKL provides drinking water from two sources north of the city: the Sundarijal Water Treatment Plant, which is along the Bagmati River, and the newly constructed Melamchi Water Project, which supplies water from the Melamchi River. The Sundarijal provides an average of 15.5 million liters per day of water and the first phase of the Melamchi Project will provide 170 million liters per day to Kathmandu Valley (KUKL). There are also 140 deep tube wells within the valley that provide 54 million liters per day of groundwater resources (KUKL).
Water Pricing
The KUKL uses a water pricing structure that is similar to an Increasing Block Rate (IRB), also known as an Increasing Block Tariff. This structure charges a low fee for initial water use and an increasing price for additional consumption. Once a customer reaches the maximum volume within a block rate, the price increases within the next block. The structure for Kathmandu households with metered connections is as follows: one fixed price of 100 NPR (U.S. $0.96) for up to 10 cubic meters of water, and 32 NPR (U.S. $0.31) per cubic meter beyond that 10 cubic meter threshold. For households with unmetered connections, there is a standard rate of 785 NPR (US$7.50) per month regardless of total water usage (Suwal).
In 2019, the KUKL had an Increasing Block Rate for their drinking water pricing, which included two separate structures: one for piped water connections and one for tanker water supply (KUKL). The rates for the first section are based on pipe sizes, with higher rates for larger pipe connections and larger minimum volumes. Although the city doesn’t charge residential, commercial, and industrial customers separately, residential homes typically have smaller pipe sizes than businesses and large industrial buildings and therefore lower rates. There is a minimum charge for any volume of water used up to the minimum consumption limit and once that threshold is reached, there is a fixed charge per 1,000 liters for additional water consumption (KUKL). Also, the sewerage service (wastewater) charge was based on pipe sizes and consumption quantities as well because it was 50% of the drinking water bill. For tanker water supplies, there were fixed rates for different quantities of water (between 5,000 and 10,000 liters), but the price per liter declined with each increase in the level of water quantity. This is typical of bulk pricing structures, but it encourages more water consumption to get lower prices per unit. Also, the KUKL does not provide non-potable or irrigation water. In general, the KUKL manages an online payment system for new and existing customers to pay their bills and file complaints, so they have a standardized system for rate setting and water bill payments (KUKL).
Issues
There is a physical abundance of water due to Kathmandu’s location in the Himalayas and drinking and wastewater management are organized under one authority, the KUKL, which is beneficial. However, environmental issues like earthquakes, seasonal monsoons, and major flooding damage water infrastructure and cause disruptions in distribution. Many rivers and groundwater wells are contaminated with metals, bacteria, and other toxins from industrial pollution and inadequate wastewater treatment. Most importantly, managerial issues prevent the city from completing infrastructure projects, supplying adequate drinking water, and meeting wastewater treatment demands.
Infrastructural and Managerial Water Scarcity
Kathmandu’s lack of water infrastructure and managerial issues impact both drinking water and wastewater treatment. Currently, the Sundarijal Drinking Water Treatment Plant is the only drinking water plant that serves the population of Kathmandu. The KUKL only supplies drinking water that meets between 20 to 30 percent of demand depending on if the city is in monsoon season, and at infrequent time intervals, or an average of 1.5 hours every 5 days (Molden). As a result, many residents have to pay high prices for water from tanker trucks or pump their own groundwater. They rely on individual tube wells, stone spouts, and dug wells, but these are typically contaminated and the aquifers are being over-extracted (Sangam).
Improvements to wastewater infrastructure have been larger impeded by managerial challenges. In 2013, the ADB invested $80 million USD to repair and build five wastewater treatment plants throughout the Kathmandu Valley. Through this investment, the Guheshwori Wastewater Treatment Plant’s capacity more than doubled as of 2018, however the other treatment plants were not completed. In 2017, the KUKL established an agreement the Chinese company SafBon Water Service Holding Inc. to construct the additional wastewater facilities over a five-year period. After the projects were delayed and SafBon failed to complete them within the five-year period, the KUKL terminated the contract in September 2022 and left the plants partially constructed (Nepal Press). The KUKL’s Project Implementation Directorate is planning to create a Decentralised Wastewater Treatment System within the nearby municipality of Gokarneshwor to take pressure off of the Guheshwori plant; however, this will only be a minor reduction of 3 million liters per day, so there will still be a large percentage of Kathmandu’s sewage that remains untreated. There are some efforts at the national and city level to improve sanitation and encourage foreign investment and private partnerships, but the city lacks reliable institutions and managerial capabilities to provide drinking water and wastewater treatment on a daily basis.
Political Corruption
Kathmandu’s water infrastructure challenges have been exacerbated by political corruption. According to the UN South Asia, corruption is estimated to cost Nepal more than 3 billion dollars annually, which increases the cost of services and goods. Transparency International estimates that corruption has driven the costs of water up by 30 percent (Sumra). Corruption has also been a major source of infrastructure delays. In the 1970s, King Mahendra, who was in power at the time, sought to transform Nepal into a tourism hub and attract international investment (Schmall). The World Bank proposed the Melamchi Drinking Water Project, an infrastructure project to bring water from the Melamchi River to Kathmandu by tunnel, which began in the 1970s. Since then, multiple Prime Ministers have been accused or convicted of corruption, including former Prime Minister KP Sharma Oli who dissolved the house of representatives in 2021 in order to pursue his unfavored reelection. Although the supreme court reinstated parliament a couple of months later, this type of conflict within Nepal’s government demonstrates how political instability may be a contributing factor in Kathmandu’s struggle to meet its water demands. It also threatens private and foreign infrastructure investments due to distrust. In 2021, after nearly a half of a century, the Melamchi Drinking Water project was finally operational. However, only a few weeks later, it was significantly damaged by monsoon flooding (Schmall). As of December 2022, the Melamchi project is partially operational through a temporary diversion system that relies on old pipes, but only some residents are receiving the river water and a long-term solution for the project is still unclear.
Unreliable Drinking Water Supply & Affordability Issues
Poor management and a lack of sufficient financial investment create reliability issues for the KUKL’s water distribution. As of January 2017, the KUKL had an approximate total of 2.12 billion Nepalese rupees (U.S. $16,058,320) in outstanding dues from its customers (Pangeni). Of that total, 1.43 billion Rs (U.S. $10,831,790) were unrecovered dues from the period prior to the KUKL’s formation in 2008 (Pangeni). Many customers are reluctant to pay their monthly bills because they barely get any water from their taps, although some settled their outstanding balances in anticipation of the Melamchi Water Supply Project extension to Kathmandu (Pangeni). However, even though the project was completed in 2021, it was quickly damaged by flooding events and is still not regularly providing water for residents. Overall, the government-piped water supply in Kathmandu has been inconsistent and even those who are connected to the system cannot rely on it to meet their daily needs. The KUKL only provides water at an average of 2 hours every 6 days to its customers (ADB). Additionally, an increase in the total number of water connections while there were delays in the Melamchi Water Supply Project construction caused even greater reliability issues due to higher demand.
As a result, Kathmandu residents are forced to seek out water from various sources for drinking, bathing, washing and cleaning, and cooking. These sources include bottled or jarred water, private wells, and public taps and wells. In 2022, the government of Nepal fixed bottled water prices at 16 NPR per liter and 47 NPR for a 20 liter jar to combat price gouging (My Republica). Given the need to buy bottled water or purchase it from private vendors, the full cost to residents is likely far more than the city’s base rate of 785 NPR or $7.50 per month. This flat rate structure is for all unmetered households, so it doesn’t account for household income and poses an even financial burden for low-income people in Kathmandu. The average worker in Kathmandu earns approximately 86,900 NPR or $660 USD per month. Low-income workers may earn closer to 22,000 NPR or $170 USD per month. The base rate cost of water is about 4% of this low-income level, but as previously mentioned, these residents are likely spending a lot more on other water resources. Poorer households rely heavily on free public wells and taps, as well as some private water vendors, because there is limited water supply from the municipal piped connections. By contrast, wealthier households can afford to consume more water overall and obtain it from private wells and tanker water, which are more expensive (Global Water Forum). There are hundreds of private tanker companies that supply water to Kathmandu residents, but they have been over extracting groundwater resources and raising water prices to unaffordable levels for many low-income residents. Another issue is that it is estimated that low-income residents relying on public wells and taps use the lowest amounts of water, with their consumption falling below the World Health Organization minimum for water sufficiency of 50 liters per day. Some households use as low as 15 liters per person per day due to unreliable water supplies (Schwartzstein). Falling below this amount signifies that their needs for water consumption and basic hygiene are not being met (Global Water Forum).
Water Contamination
Water contamination is a serious concern that has a disproportionate impact on low-income residents who may not be able to consistently afford bottled water. According to a 2022 study, 94% of water sources in Kathmandu had detectable total or fecal coliform (Sarkar). Contaminated water sources expose residents to life-threatening, waterborne diseases such as typhoid, dysentery, and cholera (Sarkar, et al.) These health impacts may fall disproportionately on low-income residents because of the KUKL’s financial and managerial shortfalls and lack of water infrastructure.
Climate Change impacts
The impacts of climate change have been felt acutely in Kathmandu. Monsoon season, which lasts from June through September, brings heavy rains and flooding to the region. Summer months see more than 14 inches of rain per month. As demonstrated with the example of the Melamchi Drinking Water Project, monsoon flooding can completely halt Kathmandu’s water infrastructure and delivery. Since the infrastructure project had been underway for 50 years, there was little foresight around climate adaptation and resilience. Along with flooding, Kathmandu must contend with seismic activity in the region. In April 2015, Nepal experienced a major 7.8 magnitude earthquake, which killed 8,964 people and destroyed buildings and infrastructure across the country. A 7.3 magnitude aftershock in May cost additional human lives and widespread destruction (Reid). Earthquakes damage pipes and cause leakages that can lead to water service collapse and contamination. Glacial melt, brought on by climate change, may be a factor contributing to seismic activity in the region. Larger glaciers can suppress earthquakes but once they melt, may release tectonic stress (Chen).
Solutions
In order to address those issues, we propose a managerial solution. The KUKL should secure additional investment from the Asian Development Bank to finish the construction of the three wastewater treatment plants and fix the damages to the Melamchi Project. The lack of adequate water infrastructure and management is at the core of Kathmandu’s water scarcity issues. Already, the KUKL uses an increasing block rate structure for its water pricing, but it continues to face financial challenges. The KUKL operates as a public-private partnership and has received financial support from private investors like the ADB in the past for infrastructure development. There seemed to be some momentum around repairing and building these treatment facilities before the pandemic, but renewed collaboration between the KUKL and ADB is needed. It is important for these two partners to select a reliable contractor, develop a strong agreement with each other, and perform continuous monitoring in order to carry out these improvements.
Strategy #1: Finish the Wastewater Treatment Plants
Completing the construction of the three unfinished wastewater treatment plants is critical for Kathamandu. Doing so would dramatically increase wastewater treatment capacity and would reduce pollution in the Bagmati River and contamination of drinking water sources. From the successful upgrade of the Guheshwori Plant, it’s evident that the ADB can be a reliable investor and project partner. Learning from the experience with SafBon, the KUKL and the ADB will need to form an agreement with a dependable contractor. The previous contract with SafBon to build the plants was $30 million USD, and when it was cancelled, KUKL had spent approximately $6 million USD. Based on this precedent and current inflation, we estimate that restarting construction and completing the project within the next 7 to 8 years, will cost $30 million USD or more.
Guheshwori Wastewater Treatment Plant, Photo by Nasana Bajracharya, Source: online khabar
Strategy #2: Fix the Melamchi Water Supply Project
Just a matter of weeks after the Melamchi Water Supply Project was completed in 2021, monsoon flooding inundated the system and halted its operation. The extreme flooding submerged the project’s headworks in 20-24 meters of debris and damaged pipes in other parts of the network (The Kathmandu Post). A year later, in May of 2022, the Melamchi supply was back in operation after a temporary dam was built. However, it was anticipated that monsoon season would again disrupt service for several months, and thus the operation would be shut down between June and October (The Kathmandu Post). It is crucial that the Melamchi Water Supply Project is fixed and adapted to better weather monsoon season. The amount of additional funding needed is unclear however, since it’s inception the Melamchi project has cost more than $800 million USD when adjusted for 2023 inflation (KUKL).
Melamchi Water Supply Project, Source: Government of Nepal
Implementation Timeline and Priorities
Of the three wastewater treatment plants that are still under construction, the KUKL should prioritize the Dhobighat plant because it has the highest capacity for wastewater treatment at 37 million liters per day. The Dhobighat plant should also be prioritized because it needs minor repairs, compared to some of the other plants which are considered “non-functional” and have larger structural issues. Next, construction should begin on the Kodku plant, which has a potential capacity to treat 17.5 million liters of wastewater per day. The Kodku plant’s construction can be staggered slightly with the Sallaghari plant, which would provide an additional treatment capacity of 14.2 million liters per day (Kathmandu Post). This overall timeline anticipates that the facilities could be completed by 2031. This is longer than the previous five-year contract with SafBon however, it may be more realistic and allow for monitoring and quality management throughout the process.
The Melamchi Water Supply Project is a key source of drinking water for Kathmandu residents. Without it, many residents have to rely on contaminated groundwater resources or expensive tanker water. ADB is already a major funder and the bulk of the project is complete, but the pipelines are in need of repair from the monsoon flooding damages. For the Melamchi Water Supply Project, immediate funding and solutions will be needed to repair the infrastructure. After that, continuous monitoring and maintenance will be critical to ensure it remains in operation. ADB has processes in place for social and environmental monitoring that are well-suited to help manage this project.
Impacts and Limitations
The Melamchi Water Supply project, if repaired and operational at full capacity, would supply 170+ million liters of drinking water per day. Currently, with only the Guheshwori wastewater treatment plant operational, the city can only treat 25% of the city’s wastewater or 32 million liters per day (Nepal Press). Repairs and completion of both of these systems would benefit human and ecological health, reduce water pollution, and increase reliability of the KUKL’s water systems. Repairing the Dhobighat plant alone would bring the wastewater treatment system to over 50% capacity.
Completing the construction of these key water infrastructure projects will not solve all of Kathmandu’s water challenges; the city’s history of political corruption delaying infrastructure projects is a major limitation. The ADB can play more of a role in oversight, contracting out construction, and project management, but corruption will likely continue to pose challenges for securing investment and improving infrastructure. Also, the KUKL is limited financially because their drinking water supply is unreliable and many residents don’t pay their water bills. Although the KUKL receives funding from the Nepalese government and other public and private sources, the agency needs additional financial support to invest in these infrastructure improvements.
The impacts of climate change and intensifying monsoon seasons also pose challenges to the overall resilience of Kathmandu’s water infrastructure. Right now, the Melamchi Project is not operational during monsoon season. Managerial changes along with physical improvements to the infrastructure are crucial. Seismic activity in the region is also a serious concern as it can cause damage to pipes and water infrastructure over time. Large earthquakes, like the one Kathmandu experienced in 2015, threaten human lives and the city’s overall capacity to rebuild and increase infrastructural capacity. The ADB has funded disaster management efforts in Nepal, following the 2015 earthquake. Water infrastructure and disaster management are interdependent in Kathmandu, and addressing the city’s water crisis will require coordination and capacity building across these efforts.
Conclusion
The proposed solutions will not fix all of Kathmandu’s water challenges, but they will address the issues of water pollution, inadequate wastewater treatment and infrastructure, and intermittent drinking water supply. Kathmandu will continue to face environmental hazards like monsoons and earthquakes and subsequent flooding throughout its urban areas and climate change is likely to worsen in the coming decades. Therefore, the KUKL should prioritize securing investment to fix and complete its current water projects, like the 3 wastewater treatments plants and the Melamchi Project, in order to better prepare the city for climate resilience. The future of water management in Kathmandu should be centered around providing clean, affordable, and reliable drinking water supplies and wastewater treatment to Kathmandu residents in order to improve their local environment and overall health and well-being.
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