Background Information
Washington, North Carolina is a small city of about 10,000 residents situated on the banks where the Tar and Pamlico Rivers meet. The city enjoys excellent access to the riverfront which has been developed into recreational open space with several docks, and is surrounded by marshland, or former marshland. Due to its low elevation, this geography makes the city somewhat vulnerable to flooding. Especially from Jacks Creek which runs through the center of the city and empties into the Pamlico River.

Existing Conditions

Here are some key metrics from the 2019 ACS 5 Year data: 

Population – 9,590 

Median Home Price – $139,500 

Median Year Built – 1969  

Median HH Income – $32,196 

Median Age – 43.4 

Income below poverty level – 27.8% 

Washington unfortunately suffers from a low household income at less than half of the US median of $67,521 according to the 2020 census. Coupled with a high poverty rate, any suggestions for infrastructure improvements will be difficult to pay for through water rates alone. 

A second point to note is the median age of homes. At 50 years old, we assume much of the supporting water infrastructure is of the same age. According to the American Society of Civil Engineers, this puts some of Washington’s water infrastructure right at the end of its useful life and will need to start implementing more costly repairs or replacement.

Water Supply

The water supply for Washington is secured through 8 pumping stations about 5-10 miles east of Washington, which pump water from the Castle Haynes Aquifer to a treatment plant near Douglass Cross Road. While the Castle Hayne Aquifer is labeled as salty in the eastern portion of the state (Saltwater Intrusion (NC), n.d.), Washington is safely drawing freshwater with no near-term concern from salinization at current wells. 

Issues

Another issue that needs to be noted is the increase of storm surges, hurricanes, and overall destructive flooding events that have hit the City of Washington.

Given the constant and relatively secure source of water for the city, Washington likely will not need to worry about providing water to its residents in the near future. However, there are issues with infrastructure maintenance which goes hand in hand with long-term flood preparation.

We were able to speak with the Water Resources Superintendent in Washington about the issue of Inflow and Infiltration the wastewater treatment plant deals with as of now. This is especially true after major storm and hurricane events where plant goes from treating 2 million gallons of water per day to 10 million gallons. Considering the wastewater treatment plant is built to only handle 3.6 million gallons of water, the extra 6.4 million gallons causes strain on the system (Hope Woolard, personal communication, October 15, 2021).

Inflow and Infiltration

Inflow and infiltration occurs when excess water from the ground or storm events enters a sewer system. Inflow occurs when stormwater enters through basement pumps or illegal connections to the sewer, and infiltration occurs when groundwater enters through cracks, leaky pipe, or manholes (Envirosight, n.d.). This is a common issue for many small towns throughout the U.S., especially when considering the age of cities along the east coast.  

There are multiple reasons as to why I&I is an issue for the city. First, sewage water can exfiltrate out of the pipes as well, which pollutes the ground water (Envirosight, n.d.). A diagram of exfiltration is shown in figure 1 below. Considering the city relies on aquifers as their source of drinking water, this should be of concern. Second, when the pipes are too full of water, it will overflow into the Pamlico River through sanitary sewer overflows. This is currently a concern, as bacteria and E-coli levels are high following storms (Weissman, et al 2021). Both of these problems, exfiltration and SSOs, have potential to violate the Clean Water Act.  

Violating the Clean Water Act could result in fines from the EPA. As an example, “In 2012, the City of Memphis, Tennessee was cited for violations against the Clean Water Act. The EPA entered in a consent decree with Memphis requiring them to pay a total of $1,290,000 in civil penalties to resolve the CWA violations (EPA)” (Bhatia, 2015). 

Waste water treatment ranges from $2 to $5 per thousand gallons (Quick Guide for Estimating Infiltration and Inflow, 2014). According to Hope Woolard, the wastewater treatment plant at Washington intakes an excess of 10 million gallons per day during hurricane events, when the plant is designed for only 3.6 million gallons per day (Hope Woolard, personal communication, October 15, 2021). This would equate to an additional $12,800 to $32,000 during a hurricane. 

Effects of Climate Change 

An in-depth report on the climate issues in North Carolina reveals the increasing trends of rainfall, shown in figure 2 below (North Carolina’s Climate Threats, n.d.). This is expected to be complemented with an increase in the number of hurricanes as well (Andrea Thompson & Brian Kahn, 2016). 

Overall, Washington’s wastewater treatment plant is overwhelmed by rainwater during large storm events caused by inflow and infiltration. Additional storm events will continue to overwhelm the system and increase their financial strain. Therefore, the City of Washington faces an increased need to fix their aged and cracked pipes.  

There is already evidence to suggest that Washington, as well as Beaufort County, will continue to experience negative effects of climate change that will result in massive amounts of damages. Using data from Open FEMA(FEMA, 2021), we were able to graph the number of insurance flood claims, as well as the amount paid on building flood claims. We expect these numbers to go continue increasing steadily since their sudden increase in 1996.

Flooding is very destructive in these parts of North Carolina. The cost of 2018’s Florence was over $20 billion in damages, with Washington making up millions of that. Residents and buildings still are dealing with the damages three years later (Sayblack, 2021). The cover image of this post shows the severity of a peak storm surge.

Proposed Solutions

If the sewage treatment plant receives too much water during a hurricane event, then storing the water in a “cistern” before it gets to the sewage treatment plant is an option. An image of a possible stormwater cistern is shown below, which is from a report by the NYC DEP, Guidelines for the Design and Construction of Stormwater Management Systems, (2012).

The sewage treatment plant can treat 3.6 million gallons of water per day. A large storm event can increase the amount of water from the typical 2 million gallons to 10 million gallons. Therefore, a cistern would have to hold about 6.4 million gallons of water. To understand a rough idea of the size and cost of this option, I used an online calculator to determine that a rectangular prism with the dimensions 130ftx135ftx50ft can hold 6.5 million gallons of water, see figure 4 below.

Unfortunately, this would most likely be costly. An article from Home Advisor, a 5,500-gallon concrete cistern can cost around $20,000 to install (How Much Does a Rainwater Collection System Cost? n.d.). Expanding this cost to 6.5 million gallons as a rough estimate, this cistern would cost about $27,000,000.

The location of this cistern could be underneath the two parking lots in front of the sewer treatment plant, shown in figure 5 below. Parking lot 1 is roughly 231,795 sqFt and Parking lot 2 is roughly 22,933 sqFt. Both parking lots could fit a cistern with the size calculated above, 130ft x 135ft x 50ft, which would have a surface area of 17,550sqFt.

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Figure 4. Taken from Tank Volume Calculator (n.d.). Showing an estimate of the required size of a cistern to hold 6.5 million gallons.

To fix the I&I problem long-term, the city should first complete a survey of the existing known pipes to assess the current conditions. American Leak Detection, located in Greenville-Wilmington North Carolina, surveys commercial water distributions (Leak Detection for Water Distribution Systems, n.d.). The company uses noninvasive methods, such as acoustic or infrared sensors, to detect leaks in pipes (Why Choose American Leak Detection, n.d.). This can be used to then separate each pipe into tiers: tier 1 are pipes that require an immediate fix, tier 2 are pipes that are less urgent and only require lining, and tier 3 are smaller fractures to be included in a long-term plan.

To fix tier 1 pipes with large leaks, the whole pipe should be replaced. The traditional method of replacing pipes is dig-and-repair, where the pipe is dug out from the ground and replaced. This method can be highly expensive depending on what is on top of the pipe. For example, if a sidewalk or a road is above the pipe, removing the concrete and repaving it will cost the water department a lot of money. Replacing the pipes alone costs around $50-$250 per foot without extraneous costs added (Heinselman, 2019). However, there is a trenchless pipe replacement option: pipe bursting. Pipe bursting uses a conically shaped machine to break and push out the old pipe while replacing it with a new pipe (“Pipe Bursting Sewer Pipe Repair,” 2013). The new pipe can potentially be interested through a manhole, reducing the costs of digging a trench (EPA, 2006). The cost of this repair ranges from $60-$300 per foot (Restore Pipe Systems, n.d.).

For tier 2 or tier 3 pipes that only require smaller fixes, the pipe can be lined. Typically, a machine can enter the sewer through a manhole, thereby cutting the expensive requirement of digging. One option for lining is a cure-in-place pipe, where a resin liner is inserted and inflated to line the inside of the pipe (Envirosight, n.d.).  This method is able to fill in cracks along the wall, making it a practical solution to infiltration (“Infiltration and Inflow Can Be Costly for Communities,” 1999). This kind of repair typically costs $80-$250 per foot (Heinselman, 2019). An example of a pipelined with CIPP is in figure 7 below. Another option, linings, are essentially hoses that line inside of the pipe. An image of an example is in figure 8 below. This kind of repair typically costs $80-$250 per foot, but costs are less than traditional dig-and-repair from reduced digging (Heinselman,
2019). Additionally, these methods can pinpoint a specific area of pipe
to be repaired, costs are reduced simply by reducing the length of
repair.

Inflow and Infiltration can be extremely costly for small utilities to undertake. Since the full range of repair required is not known, an estimation is difficult. The City of Fort Lauderdale spent around 33 million dollars to repair its sewer pipes and reduce inflow and infiltration (City of Fort Lauderdale Inflow and Infiltration Update, 2018). Considering Fort Lauderdale has 20x the population of the City of Washington, this number will be significantly smaller for Washington (Total Population in Fort Lauderdale City, Florida, n.d.). Unfortunately, more costs are difficult to determine considering the variability for each location. However, fixing I&I will be a costly solution regardless. Therefore, a long-term plan which considers the full costs is imperative for the city of Washington to develop.

We suggest a long-term plan that includes impacts of sanitary sewer overflows, the cost of I&I to the sewage treatment plant, and the fact that flooding will continue to increase over time due to climate change. After establishing the background and the necessity for I&I to be solved, the long-term plan can then explain the solutions and the overall cost of these solutions. Additional solutions, such as blue and green infrastructure, are suggested to be included as solutions. Constructed wetlands can treat sewage from sanitary sewer overflows, and green stormwater infrastructure can reduce the amount of stormwater from entering the pipe. These solutions can be used concurrently to fix the pipes, and therefore reduce the total amount of inflow and infiltration.

Mapping and documenting the conditions of existing pipes should be included while surveying the pipes. This will increase the resiliency of the system for the long term by helping future planners.

Funding

Before current and future funding is looked into, it is important to note of previous examples of water infrastructure projects that have been successful in the city of Washington.

The Wooten Company is “a multi-disciplinary firm dedicated to providing engineering, geomatics and architectural services to municipalities, counties, water and sewer authorities, educational institutions, and private industry across the Carolinas”. Public departments work with Wooten funding specialists to provide financing assistance for many local government projects. The Company has helped raise over $550 million in grants and loans for infrastructure improvements and community enhancements, with their mission being to assist in combating climate change and economic hardship in the Carolinas. (Wooten Company)

The Jack’s Creek Storm Drainage Improvements Plan and the Stormwater Management System and Waterfront Boardwalk are ongoing projects. The Wooten Company worked with Washington to design a solution to Jack’s Creek flooding and provide construction and observation for the development of reinforced concrete box culverts with flap gates under the highway that runs through Washington to aid in pumping efforts and relieve major flooding upstream. The Company also served as the prime consultant for a project aimed at updating Washington’s stormwater management system and creating a wetlands/boardwalk area to function both as a filter for runoff and as a recreational asset for its citizens. The project cost the city $1.457 million but received funding from a Clean Water Management Trust Fund grant, which awards grants to develop and improve stormwater treatment technology (Clean Water Management Trust Fund, n.d.)

Funding is a key aspect of all of this, as most of these proposed solutions require large amounts of financing. Fortunately, there are a lot of options and opportunities for Washington to utilize. In other cities, especially those that are wealthier, a top option would be to have residents pay for redevelopments. Raising rates is a common strategy that would not require any external planning. However, considering the people of this city have a median household income of $32,196, raising rates is unfortunately not a viable option for the city.

Possible funding alternatives may be found in the federal infrastructure bills. The American Rescue Plan is a policy dedicated towards repairing the deteriorated infrastructure in the country. “In 2021, the American Society of Civil Engineers gave the U.S. a C-minus grade for the state of its infrastructure across the nation.” (Kiger, 2021). The communities that need most protection are cities that receive or will receive the most amount of flooding, like Washington which sits on the Pamlico River. The Congress-passed American Rescue Plan Act was a $1.9 trillion stimulus package which set aside $350 billion to states, tribes, and local governments. And that $350 billion has even further been broken down; allocating $195.3 billion to states and $65.1 billion to counties (Cox, 2021). So, the City of Washington could receive funding from both the state level and the county level. The funding from both is available for “necessary investments”; which in the case of water and sewer systems is the maintenance of services to meet health standards or add resilience to climate change (Walton, 2021).

The $195 billion going to states was allocated to specific states according to their needs and population. In the case of North Carolina, they received $5.6 billion (“American Rescue Plan”, 2021). State Senate and House budget proposals call for spending $1.58 billion of that money on water and sewer infrastructure projects. The N.C. Division of Water Infrastructure’s new director Shadi Eskaf stated that “There’s a significant need for investment, especially for smaller local governments that might have a harder time accessing funds on their own through bonds and other avenues. So, the $1.58 billion as budgeted so far would be a significant boost to a lot of local governments to invest in water and sewer that’s needed for economic development, for public safety, for public health.” (Barnes, 2021) From these funds, municipalities will be able to will be able to apply for restructuring projects. For the purposes of equity, the Division of Water Infrastructure Authority and the Local Government Commission teamed up to create a system that ranks municipalities’ needs and eligibility for state and federal funding through a mechanism known as the Viable Utility Reserve (Barnes, 2018). The reserve was created last year to help fund water and sewer projects for municipalities designated as distressed. Beaufort County is among the local governments that meets the criteria for being in “distress” (Viable Utilities, NCDEQ).

The $61 billion going to counties will be focused on more local governments. In May of this year, “the U.S. Department of the Treasury released much-anticipated guidance—an Interim Final Rule—on how local governments can use the $65.1 billion in Coronavirus State and Local Fiscal Recovery Funds (funds) established by the American Rescue Plan Act” (Berndt, et al. 2021). The Interim Final Rule provides governments with wider latitude to identify investments into water and sewer and stormwater infrastructure that are of the highest priority for their own communities, which may even include projects on privately-owned infrastructure. To achieve this flexibility while providing clarity on the types of projects that can be funded, the Interim Final Rule aligns types of eligible projects with the wide range of projects that can already be supported by the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency’s Clean Water State Revolving Fund (SRF) and Drinking Water State Revolving Fund. “Under the Clean Water SRF, eligible projects include to construct, improve, and repair wastewater treatment plants; control non-point sources of pollution; improve resilience of infrastructure to severe weather events; create green infrastructure; manage and treat stormwater or subsurface drainage water; facilitate water reuse; and protect waterbodies from pollution. [While] Under the Drinking Water SRF, eligible projects include building or upgrading facilities and transmission, distribution, and storage systems; supporting the consolidation or establishment of drinking water systems; and replacing lead service lines” (Berndt, et al. 2021).

On top of that, the federal newly-passed Infrastructure Investment and Jobs Act. The Infrastructure Act contains $55 billion in infrastructure spending spread over five years for water, wastewater and storm water funding programs. (Crossen et al., 2021) North Carolina in general will get more than $1 billion over five years to improve water infrastructure and eliminate lead service lines and pipes. Washington’s status of being “at-risk” should be helpful here. (Blanford, 2021)

There’s a variety of federal organizations that could provide funding for certain projects as well. The EPA and state DEP/DEQ supplies the bulk of project funding in the U.S., but municipalities can also make use of the USDA and FEMA. There are two main USDA programs that can support water and wastewater systems for disasters or mitigation; the Emergency Community Water Assistance Grants (ECWAG) and the Water and Waste Disposal Loan and Grant Program. The former provides funding to mitigate disasters and give aid to help after disasters, such as extreme flooding and hurricanes. The latter provides funding for clean and reliable drinking water systems, sanitary sewage disposal, sanitary solid waste disposal, and storm water drainage to households and businesses. (Revolving Funds for Financing Water and Wastewater Projects, n.d.) FEMA grants are more dedicated to hurricane insurance funding, which can assist in our issue of storm surge flooding.

The Low-Income Household Water Assistance Program is an initiative that addresses the need for externalities. The State of North Carolina has submitted their plan for the creation of the federally-funded LIHWAP and is waiting on approval from the federal Office of Community Services. It’ll provide emergency assistance to low-income households that pay a high proportion of household income for drinking water and wastewater services. (Low Income Household Water Assistance Program, n.d.). Washington’s government officials should be lobbying and advocating for these funding sources as much as possible, if they aren’t already.

Lastly, it is essential to add that there are other ways in which Washington could gain the necessary financing for projects for water infrastructure, especially for stormwater management and I&I. Above, options pertaining to public sources of funding was discussed in length. An alternative, private. Private funding of water infrastructure would most likely occur in the form of collaborative public-private partnerships (PPP), which “provides communities with a long-term contractual agreement between a public and private entity to provide a number of different delivery models based on desired community outcomes such as faster project completion, lower project cost, utilizing private sector capital, and various risk mitigations” (“Leading Edge Financing for Water Infrastructure”, n.d.). PPPs have grown in popularity as a method to leverage private-sector actors in the production of government services (Greer, et. 2021). Long-term agreements to manage water systems can include designing, building, and financing new infrastructure. These deals often provide a way to avoid hitting customers with what would otherwise be steeper rates hikes. Municipalities don’t sell or lease their systems, nor do they typically enter into long-term contracts, without making some assessment. (Stuart, 2019) Overall, this approach can help countries that have problems with project implementation or financial blockages. Nonetheless, establishing an effective PPP requires a good governance system and sound analysis so that the project design is compliant with all relevant legislation (“Public-Private Partnerships for Water Infrastructure, 2020) Washington applies to both of these items. While they do have financial blockages, it seems like their government is well-organized enough to seek out safe partnerships.

Governments turn to PPPs to introduce new technology and innovation. Private investors and providers are increasingly local and regional, increasing competition and bringing down prices (“Water & Sanitation PPPs”). To encourage more private investment in effective PPP solutions, it is crucial that the capacity of local government is improved. This means that Washington officials must be able to grow the city to better bridge water infrastructure financing gaps (“Public-Private Partnerships for Water Infrastructure, 2020)

We recommend that Washington looks into expanding their use of PPPs, especially with privatization showing signs of use and success in recent years. American municipalities altogether are facing $1.7 trillion in water infrastructure needs. Local governments are unlikely to be able to come up with that funding. Thus, private sector expertise is going to be needed to play a key role in replacing and expanding America’s water infrastructure while keeping rates affordable. (Stuart, 2019)

Conclusion

Again, it must be reiterated that the town has little capacity to generate revenue from rate payers, making external funding and financing an essential aspect to upgrading systems. This is a significant challenge: lack of financing reduces the ability of the city to adequately respond to its issue of inflow and infiltration. Its sewage treatment plant is incredibly strained every hurricane event, which will only increase in frequency due to climate change.  

A long-term plan of preparing the city for increased maintenance costs and flood damages will be critical to ensure residents continue to enjoy reliable drinking and wastewater services. Washington has a great opportunity to capitalize on the funding opportunities provided by the American Rescue Plan, and other plans we’ve already mentioned, to make preventative repairs. By doing so, there is an opportunity to also mitigate the damaging effects of increased flooding that’s likely to happen over the next 50 years. 

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