Introduction

GUATEMALA CITY

Guatemala City is the capital of Guatemala, and its metropolitan region is made up of 12 municipalities within the capital state (province) named “Guatemala.” The total population of the city is 2.7 million and represents approximately 20% of the population of the country (FUNCAGUA 2018, p. 21). The city is located on a plateau in the volcanic highlands in the South-center of the country, and has a fairly temperate climate marked by distinct wet and dry seasons. The natural beauty of the mountainous region also makes it vulnerable to a suite of natural disasters such as volcanic eruption, landslides, and earthquakes. In fact, the capital city has been moved multiple times due to severe earthquake damage, and in its currently location was completely destroyed in the earthquakes of 1917-18. Like most parts of the world, Guatemala has been undergoing intense urbanization over the past four decades due to migration out of rural areas where declining agricultural prices, environmental degradation, and natural disasters have increasingly pushed the rural indigenous populations into informal urban settlements in Guatemala City and other urban areas. (World Bank Group 2017, p. 32) Accounting for the predicted negative impacts of climate change on agriculture in Guatemala, by 2050 the population of Guatemala City is predicted to grow to over 4 million (FUNCAGUA 2018, p. 75).

WATER SCARCITY

Being the largest city in Central America and one of the twenty largest in Latin America presents a number of demand-related issues. Primary challenges include groundwater depletion and surface water pollution- both intensified by pressures of population growth, urban development, and climate change. As observed in a report by the Nature Conservancy, “In practical terms, the abundance of water in Guatemala is relative, because despite the high total availability of this resource in the country, the capacities for its management are low or almost nil. In the context of a city, this panorama is even more critical” (Universidad & Landivar, 2013, p. 3). Managerial and institutional scarcity, as described by Molle & Mollinga, appear to be the prevailing contributions to the city’s water instability (Molle & Mollinga, 2003, p. 531).

KEY ACTORS

In order to address these problems The Nature Conservancy assisted in the establishing of FUNCAGUA (Fund for the Conservation of Water of the Metropolitan Area of Guatemala). The Water Fund is a practice that has started within a number of cities in Latin America and the Caribbean as institutional mechanisms created to provide sources of financing to protect key territories related to ecosystem services (Universidad & Landivar, 2013, p. 6). Other key actors in water management include EMPAGUA, the Municipal Water Authority and private actors such as MARISCAL that supply certain zones in the city (Saenz et al., 2014, p. 6)

Problems

SURFACE WATER CONTAMINATION

The Guatemala City metropolitan area is located in the headwaters of Ceunca between the Villalobos and Las Vacas river basins and therefore contributes to a great deal of pollution in these bodies of water from industry sewage, agricultural runoff, and residential runoff (Universidad & Landivar, 2013, p. 6). Although there are adequate sources of water in Guatemala, these rivers and lakes are being contaminated via drains and garbage. Due to this pollution Guatemala uses only about ten or twenty percent of the available water in the country (Patzan, 2019b). A study done in 2008 estimated that approximately 80% of the water treatment systems in the country worked intermittently, only between six and twelve hours per day. This results in about 15% of water coming through the systems being purified. Only a quarter of urban municipalities have purification systems, with a national sewage system coverage of about 28% (UNESCO 2015, p. 341).  

In the metropolitan area, this has resulted in the hyper-eutrophication of Lake Amatitlán, which receives untreated wastewater from the city as well as sedimentation due to poor soil and water management. Throughout the Amatitlán watershed there are approximately 79 wastewater treatment plants, few of which function properly if at all. Additionally, 23% of the entire country’s industry is located in the Amatitlán Lake basin (Ministerio 2016, p. 134). The pollution of the lake renders the water body unusable as a potable water source and has prompted the establishment of the Authority for the Sustainable Management of the Amatitlán Lake Basin (AMSA). The Lake is one of the most polluted bodies of water in Guatemala, receiving waste from the municipalities of Guatemala, Mixco, Villa Nueva, San Miguel Petapa and Villa Channels as well as part of Santa Catarina Pinula and Amatilán. This means the waste of approximately 2.2 million citizens drains into the lake (FUNCAGUA 2018, p. 84). 

Regulation around waste disposal and water treatment is both light and difficult to enforce. The Ministry of Environment and Natural Resources has established that all municipalities in the country must have treatment plants by May 6, 2019 in accordance with Governmental Agreement 270-2016. There is no evidence that this goal has been reached, nor any penalty being enforced (FUNCAGUA 2018, p. 3). Only three municipalities within the metropolitan area regulate water use at the municipal level. Information regarding garbage collection throughout the metropolitan area is difficult to locate. The municipality of Guatemala primarily relies on institutions outside of the municipal government to collect solid waste. Final destinations of the trash are difficult to locate as well. 

GROUNDWATER DEPLETION

The executive director of FUNCAGUA has noted the construction of residential buildings extending further from the center of the metropolis engenders drilling for additional wells that are not regulated for depth or extraction quantities (Presna Libre, Piped water..). More than half of the city’s water supply is drawn from wells, 15% of which are privately owned (Saenz et al., 2014, p. 1). These numbers occasionally vary from source to source as there is a lack of data, particularly in the realm of water consumption. Another piece of groundwater management is related to forest management. According to a researcher from the Universidad del Valle de Guatemala, half of Guatemala’s forests have been removed in the past 40 years (Patzan, 2019a). This results in an inability for water sources to recharge at sustainable rates. Supply is also stressed from inefficiency of operations and maintenance from the Municipal Water Company, estimating about 45% physical losses from leaks, insufficient piping, etc.(Saenz et al., 2014, p. 3).

POPULATION GROWTH & CLIMATE CHANGE

The Nature Conservancy identifies growing demand, disorderly urbanization and general degradation of the water basins as factors that threaten the availability of water in Guatemala City (Universidad & Landivar, 2013, p. 5). The city is also made increasingly more vulnerable as population growth interacts with climate change, a concept explored by Vorosmarty et al (Vorosmarty et al global water resources). Extreme weather events such as storms and volcanic eruptions have caused landslides and contaminated treatment plants with ash (Saenz et al., 2014, p. 6). Guatemala is often considered one of the 10 most vulnerable nations in regards to the effects of climate change (National Geographic). A primary concern is that the Lo De Coy and Ojo de Agua treatment plants may be compromised by extreme weather events, affecting the majority of the population that is dependent upon them for access to water. Erratic rainfall has also had a detrimental impact on agriculture and therefore the ability for citizens to find food and secure employment (Steffens, 2018).

HEALTH & VULNERABILITY

One way in which citizens of Guatemala are currently experiencing manifestations of these water management issues is through the current COVID-19 pandemic. The Ministry of Health recommends frequent hand washing, which is not possible for many due to recent water scarcity. One resident of zone 5 expressed that, “We have been without any water, we have a small trickle that helps us to have a percentage of water that is minimal and it is deplorable that they are not supporting us with the drinking system” (Mayen et al., 2020). Residents have been purchasing water from tank trucks to supplement their limited supplies. The Municipality of Guatemala has declared that they are on an institutional ‘yellow alert’ for the water shortage in the capital and have mobilized to drill wells as a response. Guatemalan citizens have already been migrating to escape severe conditions, and the intensifying scarcity of potable water could very well further this trend.

Solution

IWRM + MICRO-WATERSHED AUTHORITIES

In order to tackle the issue of water scarcity in Guatemala City, we propose an Integrated Water Resource Management (IWRM) Plan coupled with the establishment of micro-watershed authorities throughout the metropolitan region. Reflecting on the problems discussed that contribute to water scarcity, management and institutional capacity seem to be some of the largest obstacles to implementing necessary solutions. There is already evidence of support for water management in Guatemala City demonstrated by the establishing of FUNCAGUA and the vested interest of its international and local financial backers. However, the size and diversity of Guatemala City makes mobilizing and coordinating around water issues quite complex. The Integrated Water Resource Management Plan is suggested as it tackles the interconnections between Guatemala City’s water issues. Micro-watershed authorities respond to the complexity of the metropolitan area; the best solutions to these problems likely vary locally and require attention to the unique community, built and natural environments of the watersheds and municipalities. 

In order to better implement water solutions, each watershed authority will be comprised of representation from FUNCAGUA, relevant municipalities, EMPAGUA, local citizens, relevant industry stakeholders and other local organizations as appropriate. While regulation and enforcement falls upon the municipalities and local government, the watershed authorities would focus on advisory functions, implementation and convening. This would translate into responsibilities around aquifer recharge projects, solid waste collection initiatives and dumping regulations, wastewater treatment and infrastructure, water quality and depth monitoring, region-wide coordination when appropriate, and community education and outreach initiatives. The table below outlines the division of micro-watersheds and relevant municipalities.

MONITOR, REGULATE, AND INFILTRATE GROUNDWATER

To mitigate groundwater depletion in Guatemala City the micro-watershed authorities should focus on supporting efforts to regulate withdrawal and recharge the aquifers. Regulation should include monitoring and limiting withdrawal from private wells, led by EMPAGUA with a focus on major industry players such as housing developments, hotels, large-scale agriculture, etc. Recharging aquifers will require techniques specific to local land use. Dense urban watersheds should pursue infiltration wells while peri-urban and rural watersheds should push for a more diverse set of tools, including reforestation and agricultural terracing.  

EXPAND SURFACE WATER AS A DRINKING WATER SOURCE

Expanding the potential to rely on surface water as a drinking source could greatly reduce the reliance on groundwater and help to meet the needs of the population. The Xaya-Pixcaya aqueduct currently has extra capacity to transport water into the metropolitan area, tapping into other nearby water sources would help to fully utilize the aqueducts potential. However, this should not be done without working closely with the local indigenous communities around those sources to ensure the watersheds are protected.

 
POLLUTION + TREATMENT

Keeping waste out of streams and water bodies is crucial to restoring surface water as a source of drinking water. The approach to this should address solid waste disposal; the AMSA landfill located in Guatemala City is reaching capacity. The watershed authorities should work to establish decentralized systems for disposing of solid waste to ensure it does not end up in local water bodies. Additionally, dumping and waste disposal should be regulated and sewer modernization should be implemented where appropriate. 

Given the inconsistency of wastewater treatment plants, additional plants should be brought online when appropriate to meet the necessary treatment capacity of a projected 200,000 square meters/day (FUNCAGUA 2018, p. 196). The construction of artificial lagoons throughout the Villalobos basin is a potential less expensive project that would slow sedimentation and reduce reliance on treatment plants that have been historically difficult to keep running. 

Conclusion

This Integrated Water Resource Management plan, coupled with the establishment of micro-watershed authorities, seeks to address the obstacles that have prevented Guatemala City from implementing plans to reduce water scarcity. These actions should include significant coordination between key actors, such as AMSA, EMPAGUA and FUNCAGUA to ensure success. While this plan outlines many key steps to be taken, it cannot account for some of the financial and political limitations that have derailed similar plans in the past. 

References:

FUNCAGUA. (2018). Plan De Conservacion Del Agua: Fundacion para la Conservacion del Agua en la Region Metropolitana de Guatemala. 

Mayen, M. H., Barrientos, M. R., & Castillo, M. (2020, March 14). Water Shortage Could Put Many More People at Risk for Coronavirus. Prensa Libre.

Ministerio De Ambiente Y Recursos Naturales. (2016). Informe Ambiental del Estado de Guatemala.

Molle, F., & Mollinga, P. (2003). Water Poverty Indicators: conceptual problems and policy issues. Water Policy, 529–544.

Patzan, J. M. (2019a, March 19). Piped Water is Wasted More in the Metropolis due to Bad Habits and Lack of Regulations. Prensa Libre.

Patzan, J. M. (2019b, March 22). Guatemala Has Plenty of Water, But it is Polluted. Prensa Libre.

Saenz, G., Jesus, N. de, Cruz, Q. de la, & Javier, F. (2014). Assessment of Drinking Water Consumption in the City of Guatemala and the Effects of Climate Change. In LACCEI.

Steffens, G. (2018, October). Changing Climate Force Desperate Guatemalans to Migrate. National Geographic.

UNESCO. (2015). Urban Water Challenges in the Americas: A Perspective from the Academies of Sciences. 

Universidad, & Landivar, R. (2013). Bases tecnicas para la gestion del agua con vision de largo plazo en la zona metropolitana de Guatemala

World Bank Group. (2017). Central America Urbanization Review.